Federal, General, National, United States Government; States governments. In the United States, powers of government are of four classes: (1) Those which belong exclusively to the States. (2) Those which belong exclusively to the National Government. (3) Those which may be exercised concurrently and independently by both. (4) Those which may be exercised by the States, but only until Congress shall see fit to act upon the subject.1 When the government of the United States was formed, some of the attributes of State sovereignty were partially, and others wholly, surrendered and vested in the United States. The special powers delegated to it are principally such as concern the foreign relations of the country, the rights of war and peace, the regulation of foreign and domestic commerce, and other subjects of general importance. Its peculiar duty is to protect one part of the country from encroachments by another upon the national rights which belong to all. Its authority extends over the whole territory of the Union; it acts upon the States and the people of the States. It is, so far as its sovereignty extends, supreme. No State can exclude it from exercising its powers, obstruct its authorized officers against its will, or withhold cognizance of any subject which the Constitution has committed to it,- otherwise it would cease to exist. Congress may make all laws necessary (q. v.) and proper for carrying into execution the powers delegated to it. The powers not delegated, nor prohibited to the States, in the Constitution, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Every addition to its power is a corresponding diminution of the powers of the States." The rights of each sovereignty are to be equally respected. Both are essential to the preservation of our liberties and the perpetuity of our institutions.8 See CONSTITUTION. The departments of government are the legislative, which deals mainly with the future; the executive, which deals with the present; and the judicial, which is retrospective, dealing with acts done or threatened, promises made, and injuries suffered. The theory of government, State and National, is 1 Chicago, &c. R. Co. v. Fuller, 17 Wall. 568 (1873), Swayne, J.; 100 U. S. 386, 390. United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 549 (1875); Tennessee v. Davis, 100 id. 263 (1879); Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 456 (1871). 1 Sharswood, Bl. Com. 49. Pensacola Telegraph Co. v. Western Union Telegraph Co., 96 U. S. 10 (1877). • Constitution, Art. I, sec. 8, cl. 18. • Constitution, Amd. Art. X. Exp. Virginia, 100 U. S. 346 (1879). • Exp. Siebold, 100 U. S. 394 (1879). See Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 46 (1825); 21 Am. Law Rev. 399-417 (1887), cases; 1 Law Quar. Rev. 80-99 (1885); 4 R. I. 324; 11 Pa. 489; 29 Mich. 451; 58 N. H. 453. opposed to the deposit of unlimited power anywhere.1 The Constitution reposes unlimited power in no department of the National government. The lines of separation are to be closely followed to avoid encroachment.2 A co-ordinate branch will be decided to have transcended its powers only when that is so plain that the duty cannot be avoided. See DEPARTMENT. The power of governing being a trust committed by the people to the government, no part of the power can be granted away, as, the power to tax. The several agencies can govern according to their discretion, but cannot give away or sell the discretion of their successors. 4 Republican form of government. See REPUBLIC, Republican, etc. See further ALLEGIANCE; ANARCHY; APPRAISER; CITIZEN; COURT; DOMAIN; ELECTION, 1; FAITH, Full, etc.; FRANCHISE; GIFT, 1; INDEPENDENCE; INDIAN; JUDICIARY; JURISDICTION; KING; LACHES; LAW, Common; LEGISLATION; LIBERTY, 1; LIMITATIONS, Statute of; MAGNA CHARTA; MAY; MINISTER, 3; OFFICE; PEOPLE; POLICE, 2; POLICY, 1; PRIVILEGE, 1; RELIGION; REVENUE; SEDITION; SERVICE, 3; SOVEREIGNTY; STATE, 3; SUIT; TAX, 2; TORT; TREASON. 1. That worn by the justices of the Supreme Court of the United States has always been a long robe of black silk. A portrait of the first chief justice, John Jay, represents him in a borrowed robe, with broad scarlet facings and collar and sleeves of the same color. This gave rise to the tradition that the justices wore red gowns in the early days of the court. In the higher tribunals of the States, scarlet gowns were worn, in some instances, as late as 1815.5 2. In England, the silk gown is the professional robe worn by those barristers who have been appointed of the number of her Majesty's counsel, and is the distinctive badge of Queen's counsel, as the stuff gown is of the juniors who have not obtained that dignity. Accordingly, when a barrister is raised to the degree of Queen's counsel, he is said to "get a silk gown." The right to confer this dignity resides with the Lord Chancellor, who disposes of this branch of his patronage according to the talents, the practice, the seniority, and the general merits of the junior counsel. "The rules as to the robes worn by British judges have been transmitted orally. Scarlet is the color for the judges sitting in banc on the first day of the term; also in banc on such days as appear with red letters in 1 Loan Association v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 663 (1874). 2 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 190 (1880). 3 Trade-Mark Cases, 100 U. S. 96 (1879). Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 820 (1879). See The Century, Dec. 1882. See 5 Alb. Law J 225 (1872); Jeaffreson, Courts & Lawyers, 180; Brown, Law Dict.